Theories+of+Learning

=Unit 4=

AOS 1.Dot Point 3.
**Applications of and comparisons of learning theories:** **� classical conditioning as informed by Ivan Pavlov: roles of neutral, unconditioned, conditioned stimuli; unconditioned and conditioned responses** ** Classical conditioning: ** A form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli ** Stimulus: ** Any variable present in the environment that may trigger a response. ** Response: ** An action or behaviour that is exhibited. ** Pavlov conducted a series of experiments on dogs. He was able to associate a bell with food, so that after conditioning, the dog salivated to the sound of a bell. **

**__Key elements of classical conditioning__** ** Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): ** Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response. ** Unconditioned response (UCR): ** The response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented. ** Conditioned stimulus (CS): ** The stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning and doesn�t normally produce the UCR ** Conditioned response (CR): ** The learned response that is produced by the CS. ** Acquisition: ** The overall process where the organism learns to associate two events. The CS and UCS are presented together. ** Extinction: ** The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented. ** Stimulus generalisation: ** The tendency for another stimulus (similar to CS) to produce a response that is similar to the CR. ** Stimulus discrimination: ** When the organism responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar. ** Spontaneous recovery: ** The reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, after the CR appears to have been extinguished. ** Conditioned reflex: ** A type of conditioned response that is so familiar and well learned that it occurs very quickly and with little conscious thought or awareness. ** Conditioned emotional response: ** A learned reaction where a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus consistently produces an emotion, and behaviour consistent with that emotion.

Resources:
 * Pavlov & Classical Conditioning (Summary) **
 * Classical conditioning, studied by Pavlov, occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) is associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a response.
 * The UCS causes a reflex response called the unconditioned response (UCR). If the NS is consistently paired with the UCS, it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of producing a response by itself. This response is a conditioned (Learnt) response (CR).
 * When the CS is repeatedly presented alone, conditioning is extinguished (weakened or inhibited). After extinction seems to be complete, a rest period may be followed by the temporary reappearance of a CR. This is called //spontaneous recovery//.
 * Through //stimulus generalisation//, stimuli similar to the CS will also produce the CR. Generalisation gives way to //stimulus discrimination// when an organism demonstrates the CR only when the specific CS is present.



A terrific example of classical conditioning used in 'The Office' : [|The Office_Pavlov]

Zimbardo on Classical conditioning: []

** � applications of classical conditioning: graduated exposure, aversion therapy, flooding ** __The three applications below are all behaviour modification techniques used to eliminate undesirable responses such as phobias or bad habits.__

(Aversion Therapy is often linked with **Taste Aversion**, where principles of classical conditioning are applied to condition avoidance of a smell or taste if it had previously been paired with nausea.
 * Graduated Exposure ** : Also called systematic desensitisation. A therapeutic process where an individual is gradually taken, step by step, through a series of tasks to extinguish the conditioned response.
 * Flooding ** : A therapeutic technique, generally used to treat phobias, which exposes a patient to vast amounts of the feared conditioned stimulus in order to hasten the process of extinction.
 * Aversion Therapy ** : A therapeutic technique using classical conditioning principles in which an individual learns to associate an undesirable behaviour or object (such as illicit drugs, smoking etc), with an unpleasant response, such as fear or nausea. Therefore, after conditioning, when an individual craves this undesirable substance, they will experience the negative response and therefore avoid consuming the substance.
 * Important ** : A key distinction between classical conditioning and taste aversion is that taste aversion only requires one trial to be learned.

Resources:



** � Three-phase model of operant conditioning as informed by B.F. Skinner: positive and negative reinforcement, response cost, punishment and schedules of reinforcement ** To highlight the differences between Classical Conditioning and his 3-phase model of Operant conditioning, Skinner used the term //respondent// //conditioning// to refer to the reflexive nature of the learner in classical conditioning and preferred the term //operant conditioning// to describe the voluntary interactions between the learner and its environment in Thorndike�s instrumental conditioning. According to Skinner, operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the behaviours of the learner are strengthened or weakened in accordance with their consequences, as the learner operates on their environment. Behaviours followed by a pleasant stimulus are strengthened, while behaviours followed by an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus are weakened. ** Operant: ** A behaviour that occurs spontaneously as the learner operates or acts on its environment. It is not a reaction elicited by a specific stimulus in the environment ** Three-phase Model of Operant Conditioning (ABC�s of Conditioning) ** **__ Elements of operant conditioning __** ** Antecedent: ** in operant conditioning, any stimulus that triggers the action ** Behaviour: ** the observable actions by which an organism adjusts to its environment ** Consequence: ** in operant conditioning, any stimulus that makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future� An organism will tend to repeat behaviours that have desirable consequences or allow it to avoid undesirable consequences. Likewise an organism will tend to cease behaviours that have undesirable consequences. Skinner carried out experiments on rats & pigeons to demonstrate operant conditioning. He used �operant chamber� now commonly known as a skinner box (box where animal can receive food by pressing a lever, or grid floors that can deliver electric shocks). **Positive and Negative Reinforcement** **Reinforcer:** A reward that strengthens the response it follows and increases the likelihood of that response occurring again. **Positive reinforcement:** Giving a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a desired response. ** Negative reinforcement: ** The removal of an unpleasant stimulus that increases the likelihood of a desired response. ** Escape conditioning: ** A form of operant conditioning based on negative reinforcement where a response that causes the cessation of an unpleasant stimulus increases in frequency over time. ** Acquisition: ** Establishing a response through reinforcement. ** Extinction: ** Gradual decrease in response after non-reinforcement of the response. ** Spontaneous recovery: ** After extinction, the response occurring again. ** Stimulus generalisation: ** When the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus. ** Stimulus discrimination: ** When the correct response is made to a stimulus and is reinforced, but doesn�t respond to any other stimulus.

**__ Schedules of reinforcement: __**

Introduction:
 * Continuous reinforcement: ** Reinforcing every correct response

** Partial reinforcement: ** Reinforcing some correct responses, but not all. **Fixed ratio schedule** - reinforcer given after a set number of **responses.** **Variable ratio** - reinforcer given after unpredictable number of correct responses. Usually based on an �average�. Eg. Poker machines will pay out on average 1 time in 30. You may get 2 pay offs in a row but then receive no reinforcement for the next 40 or so responses. However, over the course of a day, the machine **will pay out** at the ratio set. You just don�t know when you will next receive the reward.
 * A bit more detail: **

**Fixed interval** - reinforcer given after a fixed **time period**.

**Variable interval** - reinforcer given after unpredictable time period. This schedule of reinforcement follows the same principle of variable-ratio. However in this form, the reinforcement is based on time as the unit of measurement, not responses. **Punishment**
 * Punishment defined: ** The following of a response with a negative occurrence that reduces or weakens the likelihood of the response recurring


 * Punisher: ** Any event or action that decreases the likelihood of a response from occurring again.


 * Response Cost: ** Also called negative punishment. A form of punishment involving the removal of a desirable event or commodity that decreases the likelihood of a response occurring.

Resources:

Increasing the likelihood of a behaviour by delivering a pleasant stimulus e.g. A parent encourages their child to earn good marks by giving them $10 for each 'A' they obtain. || ** Punishment ** Decreasing the likelihood of a behaviour by delivering an aversive stimulus. e.g. A parent increases the number of chores their child must complete when the child obtains poor grades, to discourage them from doing so in the future. || Increasing the likelihood of a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus. e.g. A parent encourages their child to earn good grades by giving them a week off their regular household chores for every 'A' they obtain. || ** Response Cost ** Decreasing the likelihood of a behaviour by removing a pleasant stimulus. e.g. A parent withholds pocket money for a week when their child earns poor marks, to discourage them from doing so in the future. ||
 * __ Summary of Distinguishing factors between types of reinforcement and punishment __**
 * || ** REINFORCEMENT (STRENGTHENING BEHAVIOUR) ** || ** PUNISHMENT (WEAKENING BEHAVIOUR) ** ||
 * ** POSITIVE (ADDING A STIMULUS) ** || ** Positive Reinforcement **
 * ** NEGATIVE (REMOVING A STIMULUS) ** || ** Negative Reinforcement **

** Punishment Versus Negative Reinforcement **
 * Negative Reinforcement (like positive reinforcement) increases the probability of a response occurring, whereas punishment aims to __decrease__ the probability of the response occurring.
 * Punishment occurs when an unpleasant stimulus follows a response (eg inappropriate behaviour), whereas negative reinforcement occurs when the response __avoids or stops__ an existing unpleasant stimulus.

**__ Factors Influencing Punishment: __**
 * Order of presentation: Like a reinforcer, it is a consequence and as such follows the undesirable behaviour
 * Timing: ideally the punisher is presented immediately after the undesirable behaviour has been displayed and the punishment needs to be consistent or the undesirable behaviour may return to its original frequency.
 * Appropriateness of the punishment

- punishments should be moderate

- not involving physical or psychological harm

- specific to the undesirable behaviour to be most effective. **__ Side-Effects of Punishment __**
 * Frustration & aggression: This can develop in children who are punished frequently.
 * Punishment as an outlet of frustration for the punisher
 * Punishment making the punisher feel better, rather than because the person being punished deserves it or because there is a decrease in the likelihood of the undesirable behaviour.

** � applications of operant conditioning: shaping, token economies ** ** Primary Reinforcer ** : A stimulus that normally leads to the satisfaction of an innate, biological need; for example, food, oxygen and sleep.

** Secondary Reinforcer ** : A stimulus that normally leads to the satisfaction of needs learnt through a learnt association with a primary reinforcer.

**Shaping, Method of successive approximations & Chaining**

Shaping is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the desired response or target behaviour.

Often used with animal training. Skinner applied this technique to teach a pigeon, amongst other things to turn a complete circle in an anti-clockwise direction and to 10-pin bowl. He even used the technique (including using a bigger version of the Skinner box with his own children!).

Where more complicated animal tricks are concerned, chaining is often used which is similar to shaping except that it involves stringing together a number of individual tricks into a sequence and is achieved by working backwards.


 * Applications of Operant Conditioning: Token Economies **

** Token Economy: ** An application of operant conditioning in which the learner receives a �token� or coupon for exhibiting the target behaviour, which can be accumulated and later exchanged for a reinforcer. The tokens, coupons or credits by themselves are not providers of a satisfying consequence, but when accompanied by the knowledge that they can be traded for something that is desirable (lollies, toys, privileges etc) they become a reinforcer.

Resources:

** Comparisons of classical and operant conditioning in terms of the processes of acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, spontaneous recovery, role of learner, timing of stimulus and response, and nature of response (reflexive/voluntary) ** ** Important Distinctions: **
 * **// Classical Conditioning //** ||  **// Operant Conditioning //**  ||
 * Only involuntary responses involved ||  May involve both voluntary and involuntary responses  ||
 * Response (UCR or salivation) depends on the reinforcement being presented. (UCS or meat) ||  Reinforcement (eg food pellet) depends on the response being made (eg lever press)  ||
 * The reinforcer is the UCS and this __precedes__ the response ||  The reinforcer __follows__ the desired response  ||
 * A specific stimulus results in a particular response ||  No specific stimulus produces a particular response  ||
 * One stimulus __substitutes__ for another ||  No substitution takes place  ||
 * In humans, emotions such as fear (ANS) are primarily involved ||  Responses associated with goal-seeking behaviour are primarily involved  ||
 * One reinforcer can elicit only one type of response ||  One reinforcer can be used to strengthen a wide variety of responses.  ||
 * Partial reinforcement is likely to weaken the association between the UCS and CS ||  Partial reinforcement is likely to strengthen the conditioning process & increase the response rate.  ||


 * ** Specific distinctions ** ||  ** Classical Conditioning **  ||  ** Operant Conditioning **  ||
 * ** ACQUISITION ** || The process of paring a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) over a number of trials, to produce an unconditioned response (UCR) || The process of a particular behaviour (response) being followed by a reinforcing or punishing consequence (stimulus) over a number of trials ||
 * ** EXTINCTION ** || When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the conditioned response (CR) weakens until it does not occur at all || The gradual decrease in the rate of a response until it eventually does not occur at all. This occurs when reinforcement or punishment is no longer delivered following the response it had previously reinforced or punished. ||
 * ** SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY ** || The reoccurrence of a conditioned response (CR) that had previously been extinguished, without any additional pairings of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). || The reoccurrence of a learned response that had previously been extinguished, without the presentation of any additional reinforcement ||
 * ** STIMULUS GENERALISATION ** || When a neutral stimulus (NS) that is similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) causes a conditioned response (CR) to occur, despite never having been paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) || The learner produces a response in a similar situation to that which normally results in reinforcement or punishment occurring. ||
 * ** STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION ** || When the conditioned response (CR) is not elicited by a neutral stimulus (NS) despite its similarity to the conditioned stimulus (CS). || The learner produces a behaviour only in the situation where reinforcement or punishment occurs, and not in other similar situations ||
 * ** ROLE OF THE LEARNER ** || Learner is Passive when either CS or UCS is presented. (Response is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). || Learner is Active. The organism must be active to receive the reinforcement or punishment. ||
 * ** TIMING OF STIMULUS & RESPONSE ** || Reinforcement occurs before the response when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with unconditioned stimulus (UCS). || Reinforcement occurs after the response, when it is followed by a reinforcer. ||
 * ** NATURE OF RESPONSE ** || The nature of the response is involuntary and reflexive. || The nature of the response is voluntary and spontaneous. ||

Resources:

** One-trial learning with reference to taste aversion as informed by John Garcia and Robert A. Koelling (1966) **
 * One Trial Learning: ** A form of learning in which a conditioned response is produced after a single pairing of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. A conditioned taste aversion occurs as a result of one-trial learning.


 * Conditioned Taste Aversion: ** Where a neutral taste stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that results in an unconditioned response of nausea or illness. After a single pairing, the previously neutral taste stimulus alone produces the conditioned response of nausea. This is also known as the **Garcia Effect**.


 * Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversion **

Taste aversion was accidentally discovered by Garcia and Koelling (1966) while they were looking at the effects of radiation on rats. The rats became nauseated (UCR) from the radiation (UCS). Because the taste of water from a plastic bottle (CS) was inadvertently paired with the radiation, the rats developed a taste aversion (CR) for this water (CS). Subsequently, the rats drank more from the glass water bottle in their �home� cages (water that didn�t have the plastic taste). When the rats drank from the plastic bottle, the rats became nauseated. __ Using the Classical Conditioning Module, the findings of Garcia and Koelling (1966) are explained as follows: __ Once the rats recovered, they were provided with sweetened water and plain water and their preference was noted. Rats drank significantly less of the sweetened water following the conditioning process, and it was concluded that they had developed a conditioned taste aversion. __Taste Aversion highlights the learning principle of **contiguity.**__
 * The UCS is the radiation. **
 * 1) The UCR is becoming nauseated from the radiation.
 * 2) The CS is the �plastic� taste of the water from the plastic water bottles.
 * 3) The CR is becoming nauseated after drinking from the plastic water bottles.


 * Contiguity: ** Occurs in conditioning and refers to the association of two seemingly unrelated events when they occur close together in time and space.

Resources:

� trial-and-error learning as informed by Edward Lee Thorndike�s puzzle-box experiment ** Trial & error learning: ** Learning by trying alternative possibilities until a correct solution is achieved. **__ Thorndike __** : Carried out experiments on cats. He placed a hungry cat inside a �puzzle box� and put a fish outside the box. The cat had to learn to escape to get to the food. Initially the cats took a while to escape, but became quicker at it through trial and error.

__ Thorndike's Law of Effect __ Behaviour - Pleasant Consequences - Increased likelihood of occurring Behaviour -Unpleasant Consequences - Decreased likelihood of occurring To describe this process Thorndike coined the term //instrumental conditioning.// That is, the process in which an individual makes an association between behaviour and the consequences that follow it.

Resources:

** Observational learning (modelling) processes in terms of the role of attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement as informed by Albert Bandura's (1961, 1963a, 1963b) experiments with children ** ** Elements of observational learning ** ** Bandura’s 1961 ** experiment Thirty-six boys and 36 girls aged 3–6 years were chosen from the local Stanford nursery school. One of the teachers from the nursery school worked with the experimenter to rate each child’s personality and attempt to construct well-balanced groups. The children were divided into three groups, each with 12 boys and 12 girls.
 * 1) ** Attention: ** We must pay attention to key aspects of observed behaviour to learn. Attention may be influenced by; the capabilities of the observer; motivation; interest; distracters present; & characteristics of the model. Attention needs to be drawn to the observed behaviour long enough for it to be mentally processed.
 * 2) ** Retention: ** One must store the responses learned for future use. Memories of the events need to be formed (encoded). The more meaningful the mental representation of what is observed, the more accurately the behaviour can be replicated at a later stage.
 * 3) ** Reproduction: ** One must have the ability to be able to reproduce what has been observed. The mental representations have to be converted into actions. When a task is complex, it may take several attempts to replicate the observed behaviour.
 * 4) ** Motivation : ** The learner must be motivated to perform and hence learn the behaviour.
 * 5) ** Reinforcement: ** Unless the behaviour is useful or provides incentive, it is unlikely that they will want to learn it, or perform it. A reward or punishment can influence the motivation to learn.
 * Participants **

> Observation of model’s behaviour. > An independent groups design was used.
 * Method **


 * Experimental conditions **
 * Group 1 ** : no model. Each child sat alone in the room for ten minutes with no adult present and did not have the opportunity to observe the behaviour of an adult (model).


 * Group 2 ** : aggressive model.


 * Group 3 ** : passive model.

> Each child from groups 2 and 3 was placed one at a time in a room with an adult (model). The child sat in one corner of the room with some toys to play with. The adult sat in the other corner of the room with a variety of toys, as well as a Bobo doll and mallet. The child was told not to play with the Bobo doll or mallet in the adult’s corner.

> Each child from group 2 was placed in a room with an adult (model). After one minute of playing with the toys, the adult verbally and physically attacked the Bobo doll for a period of ten minutes. Behaviours included throwing the doll, hitting it with the mallet, and punching it while saying ‘pow’ and ‘boom’.

> Each child from group 3 was placed in a room with an adult (model). The adult sat quietly and played peacefully with the toys for ten minutes.

> For the second part of the experiment, each child was taken into a second room which had toys. To build up the children’s levels of frustration, they were told not to play with the toys because they were reserved for other children to play with.

> Each child was then taken into a third room which had both ‘aggressive’ (toy guns, swords etc.) and ‘non-aggressive’ toys. There was also a Bobo doll and mallet. Each child was left alone in the room and observed by the experimenter through a one-way mirror. The children’s behaviour was recorded in the following categories:


 * 1 ** imitation of acts of physical aggression; punching or kicking the doll, hitting it with the mallet and acts of verbal aggression; general abuse, imitation of phrases used by the adult role-model
 * 2 ** partial imitation of the aggressive model; hitting other toys with the mallet, sitting on the doll but not punching it
 * 3 ** modes of aggression that were not direct imitations of the role-model’s behaviour; verbal abuse but not using the same words as the model, physical aggression directed at the other toys
 * 4 ** non-aggressive behaviour; sitting quietly, non-aggressive play.

> Children who were exposed to the aggressive model (group 2) were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour.
 * Results **

> Children who saw the aggressive model (group 2) showed more partial imitation and non-imitation aggression than the children who saw the passive model (group 3) or no model at all (group 1).

> Boys were nearly three times more likely than girls to imitate the physically violent behaviour by a male model.

> Children exposed to the passive model (group 3) or no model at all (group 1) were less likely to display aggressive behaviour.

Learning can occur in the absence of reinforcers for the observers. This finding was in direct contrast to Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning.
 * Conclusion **

For this study, Bandura and colleagues used the same methodology as the1961 experiment but with three different conditions: > group 1: live aggressive model (Live) > group 2: video of the aggressive model (Videotape) > group 3: aggressive model in cartoon format (Cartoon) > group 4: live passive model (Control).
 * Bandura’s 1963a experiment **

It was found that: > the children who saw the adult role model behave aggressively in any of the conditions were more likely to behave aggressively themselves later
 * Results: **

> the live role model was the most influential

> the children who saw the aggressive video and cartoon models showed almost twice as much aggression as the children in the control group (group 4).

These results added to the findings of the 1961 experiment and demonstrated that learning can happen vicariously and without any reinforcers given to either the model or the observer and through different media. The findings were cause for concern and prompted debate about the relationship between violent television programs and children learning aggressive behaviour
 * Conclusion **

This experiment was similar to the previous ones but this time the conditions were designed to study the influence of the consequences for the model:
 * Bandura’s 1963b Experiment **

> group 1: (first control group)—highly expressive but non-aggressive models > group 2: (second control group)—no exposure to models > group 3: aggressive model rewarded for the aggressive behaviour > group 4: aggressive model punished for the aggressive behaviour.

The children were then observed for their imitative aggressive responses to the Bobo doll when they were alone in the room with it.

> Children who had observed the aggressive model rewarded (group 3) showed more imitative aggression and copied their model more than children in the group where the aggressive model was punished (group 4). > Controlling aggression was vicariously learnt by boys who saw the aggressive model punished (group 4) and by girls through the presentation of incompatible prosocial examples of behaviour.
 * Results **

Boys and girls can vicariously learn to control aggression There are a number of lessons to be learnt from Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments:
 * Conclusion **
 * Lessons from the Bobo doll experiments **

> Learning can occur through observation of the behaviour of models.

> Vicarious learning can occur when models are seen to be reinforced for their behaviour. Learning can be cognitive; the children who observed the models learnt how to hit a Bobo doll but did not necessarily demonstrate their learning.

> Learning through observation can occur but remain latent unless an appropriate incentive or reward is offered to the observer to reproduce the learnt behaviour. It is not necessary for a learner to be active or to have reinforcement for learning to occur.

> Learning to control behaviour such as aggression can also be learnt through observation of an appropriate model, such as boys observing male models. This suggests that prosocial behaviour can also be learnt through observation of appropriate models.

> Although the Bobo doll experiments did not absolutely prove that children learn to behave aggressively, it did suggest that it is //likely// that children observing an adult model behaving aggressively might believe that this type of behaviour is normal. Girls were less likely to be physically aggressive but were equally as prone to verbal aggression as boys.

Resources:

Insight learning as informed by Wolfgang Kőhler
 * Insight: ** Insight learning occurs when individuals achieve a sudden understanding about a situation, without overt trial and error testing, that enables them to solve similar problems.


 * The steps involved in Insight Learning **
 * 1) __ Preparation __ : An initial feeling of helplessness or an inability to solve the problem, leading the individual to gather as much information as possible.
 * 2) __ Incubation: __ An apparent pause in activity where the problem is put aside, but where information continues to be processed on a subconscious level.
 * 3) __ Insightful Experience __ : (aka ‘illumination’ or the A-ha’ phenomenon). A sudden and complete realisation of the solution, after which it can be performed quickly and without errors.
 * 4) __ Verification __ : The solution is repeated to ensure that it is correct. The individual can now transfer the knowledge gained in this task to other similar tasks, thus solving them in less time and with less effort.


 * Summary of K **** őhler’s Experiments using chimpanzees to explore Insight Learning **

In one experiment, K őhler placed a banana outside the cage of a hungry chimpanzee, Sultan, but the banana was out of reach. He gave Sultan two bamboo sticks, each too short for pulling in the food, but able to be joined in order to make a single stick of sufficient length.

Sultan tried unsuccessfully to use each stick, and tried using one stick to push the other along to touch the banana. Sultan appeared to give and sat on his box in his cage for a period of time.

Suddenly, he resumed playing with the sticks, fitting one into the other to form a longer stick which he successfully used to reach the banana.

In later studies, K őhler put chimpanzees in a room with several boxes and a banana dangling from the roof. The chimpanzees exhibited insight when they suddenly stacked the boxes on top of one another to reach the banana. ** Resources: ** ** Latent learning as informed by Edward Tolman **
 * Latent Learning: ** Latent learning refers to learning that takes place without any direct reinforcement, but may not be immediately apparent, remaining ‘hidden’ until the behaviour is needed or reinforced.

An experiment by Tolman and Honzik (1930) provided some of the first evidence that reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur. 3 Groups of Rats were placed in a maze and their behaviour was observed each day for 17 days, measuring performance based on the number of errors each rat made in reaching the goal box. The rats in Group 1 were rewarded with food at the end. The rats in Group 2 were never given any food. The rats in Group 3 received no food for 10 days, but were then rewarded from the 11th day. The first group quickly learnt to rush to the end of the maze to find their food, whereas the seconds group showed little improvement throughout the trials. Group 3 behaved similarly to Group 2 until food was introduced on Day 11. Then they quickly learnt to run to the end of the maze and did as well as Group 1 rats by the next day. Tolman and Honzik concluded that the third group of rats had been learning all along, and that a new voluntary behaviour can be acquired without reinforcement, although the performance of that behaviour does require some incentive.
 * Summary of Tolman and Honzik’s Experiments Using Rats to Explore Latent Learning. **
 * Method **
 * Conditions **
 * Results **
 * Conclusion **


 * Resources: **