7.+Research+Methods+and+Ethics

=Unit 4.=

Dot Point 7.
Research methods and ethical principles associated with the study of mental health, as outlined in the introduction to the unit.

** • Research Methods and Ethical Principles **


 * __ Experimental Research __** :

**// Variables //** // A variable is a factor related to the property of an organism or object that can alter in amount or kind and can be measured. // **// Independent Variable: //**// The variable that is manipulated or varied by the experimenter. When applied in research, this variable is said to __cause__ the results. // **// Dependent Variable: //**// The variable which is being observed or measured in the experimental situation to see the __effect__ of the independent variable. //
 * Identification and operationalisation of independent and dependent variables; **

** Identification of extraneous and potential confounding variables including: ** **// Extraneous Variables: //**// Variables other than the independent variable which __may__ // influence the dependent variable. ** Confounding Variables ** : When an extraneous variable is not controlled for or held constant; its effect can become confused with the effects of the independent variable. This means that the results drawn from the study cannot be said to be due to the independent variable alone and causal relationships between the independent variable and the dependent variable cannot be applied with any confidence.
 * Artificiality: ** The unwanted effect on participant behaviour created by the unnatural environment in which an experiment is conducted


 * Demand characteristics ** : When participants’ knowledge of the aim of a study causes them to behave in a way that is not normal for them; this affects the results of the study.


 * **Reactivity: ** reacting with negative outcomes when knowingly participating in a study (e.g. performance impaired due to anxiety/fear of failure/embarrassment). Researcher should create an environment and conduct procedure so as to reduce anxiety levels in participants (e.g. creating a non-threatening environment and by conducting the procedure in a non-intimidating way; reduce artificiality of the situation).
 * **Hawthorne effect **: enhanced performance by participants due to participants being observed knowingly. Researcher could be subtle or unobtrusive in making observations, or deception may be used.
 * **Social desirability: ** participants may act unnaturally to project an image perceived by themselves to be suitable for the situation, such as giving modified responses in order to appear in a more positive or socially favourable light. Research could apply procedures that elicit responses subtly.


 * Non-standardised instructions and procedures: ** The use of non-standardised instructions and procedures would remove the systematic basis for making inferences about people. Unless a test is reliable and valid, it cannot measure behaviour accurately, and unless it has been standardised, there is no way to determine the meaning of an individual’s score.


 * Standardisation ** – Establishing standards for administering a test and interpreting scores.

** If non-standardised procedures are used in research: **
 * If instructions or procedures are not standardised, participants can be exposed to different experiences, such as a more or less clear instructions, or more or less time to complete the task.
 * This could lead to group results being affected (either positively or adversely) due to the manner of conducting the study rather than the task itself.

**__ Sampling Procedures __** : The process of choosing participants. ** Sample ** : A subset of the population of interest ** Probability Sampling – ** Where the sample is likely to be representative of the target population: ** Random Sample: ** A sampling technique ensuring that every member of the population of interest has an equal chance of being selected for the sample being used in a study. ** Stratified Sample: ** A sampling technique that ensures the sample contains the same proportions of participants that are found in the population of interest ** Random-stratified sampling: ** A form of stratified sampling involving random samples of each stratum being selected. ** Non-probability Sampling- ** Where the sample may not be representative of the population: ** Convenience Sampling ** : A sampling technique involving the selection of participants because they are readily available to the researcher.
 * Ways of minimising confounding and extraneous variables including type of sampling procedures, and standardised instructions and procedures **

**__ Data Collection Methods __** - **Techniques of qualitative and quantitative data collection**
 * Qualitative Data ** : Data that describe the changes in the quality of a behaviour
 * Often involves accounts of personal attitudes or experiences, or descriptions of feelings.


 * Applications of Qualitative Data Collection **
 * Case Study: ** An in-depth, detailed study of all aspects of a single participant, group or event, usually undertaken to gain insight into a particular psychological phenomenon.
 * Observational Studies ** : A method of data-collection that involves watching and recording the behaviour of another person(s) or animal(s) within a specific environment and drawing conclusions based on the recorded observations.
 * ** Observer Effect ** : Where a participants behaviour changes from normal to otherwise because they know they are being observed.
 * ** Observer Bias: ** Bias in the data collected during an observational study when an observer sees what he or she expects to see, or records only selected details of an observed behaviour.

** Self-Reports: ** A data collection technique in which individuals are asked to freely express their attitudes (verbally or in writing) by answering questions **Procedures Researchers use to control extraneous variables: ** Participants don’t know whether they are in the control or experimental group (prevents placebo effect) Participants & experimenter(s) don’t know which group participants are in (prevents placebo and experimenter effect).
 * ** Questionnaire: ** A written set of standardised questions that can be administered face-to-face, by mail, by telephone or via the internet. Has both qualitative and quantitative features.
 * ** Interview: ** A form of qualitative data-collection where individuals are asked to comment on their attitude towards a particular issue(s)
 * **single-blind ** procedure to eliminate the placebo effect
 * **double-blind ** procedure to eliminate experimenter effect


 * To minimise extraneous variables different experimental designs can be used: **

The research designs for eliminating participant-related variables and order effects (independent-groups, matched-participants, repeated-measures) Other considerations researchers consider in designing experiments and other forms of psychological research:
 * **__ Repeated measure design __** - Same participants are used in the control and experimental conditions.
 * This design controls for variations in subject characteristics (demand characteristics) which may in turn influence the dependent variable. Also known as a within-subjects design, participants in the study are tested more than once – repeatedly measured. The same participants are used in each condition receiving all levels of the independent variable and ensuring that there is equality between the groups at the start of the study.
 * **__ Matched participants design __** - Selecting pairs of participants who are similar in characteristics that can influence the DV.
 * This method also aims to achieve equality between the groups at the start of the study. This time, however, the participants are matched or equated on one or more variables (other than the independent variable) that have been identified as potential extraneous variables. That is, with the potential to affect the dependent variable. Participants usually sit a pre-test or are matched on predetermined characteristic (e.g. Intelligence) and paired up. One participant is then randomly allocated to either the experimental group or control group and the remaining participant in the pair is allocated to the other condition.
 * Rather than using the same participants in both conditions, participants are separated into either the control or experimental, however, because of the matching process; the characteristics of concern are balanced between the two conditions.
 * **__ Independent groups design __** - Randomly allocating participants to groups.
 * Also known as a between-subject design, different participants are allocated (usually randomly) to either the control group or the experimental group of an experiment and receive different treatments to varying degrees depending on the nature of the study. In its simplest form, the experimental group is exposed to the independent variable and the control group is not.
 * The methodology applied in this instance leaves scope for the introduction of potential extraneous variables because of differences between the personal characteristics of the groups. The extraneous variables can confuse the clear relationship between the independent and dependent variables. To minimise this from occurring and ensure the formation of equivalent groups of participants, researchers need to either randomly assign participants to the groups or match them on the characteristics of concern (see matched participants design).
 * // Each design has its strengths and weaknesses. Time, funding and the nature of the study itself are all determining factors in which designs researchers will utilise in planning and conducting their experiments. //
 * <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 13.33px;">standardised instructions, procedures and assessment of results to ensure uniformity in the gathering of data
 * <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 13.33px;">artificiality: If the procedures are conducted in contrived, controlled or laboratory setting – there are questions as to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to the ‘real world’ or natural environment. However, artificiality enables greatest control over extraneous various and facilitates maximum cause and effect relationships between the variables of interest.
 * <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 13.33px;">other participant-related variables such as demand characteristics, mood or other state of mind, physiological state (such as headache, medical condition, substance use)
 * <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 13.33px;">other environmental variables such as physical conditions in testing area, time of day/week.

** Ethical Principles and Professional Conduct ** ** Ethics: ** Moral principles and codes of behaviour ** General Ethical Principles for Research: ** ** Integrity – ** refers to the commitment by the researcher to the search for knowledge, using recognised principles for conducting research and in the honest and ethical conduct of research. ** Respect for Persons - ** is when the researcher properly regards the welfare, rights, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of all individuals involved in the research. ** Beneficence ** - this is the researchers’ responsibility to maximise possible benefits and minimise any risks to participants. The welfare of the participants has a higher priority than the expected benefits to knowledge. ** Justice – ** this is where the researcher needs to ensure that there is a fair distribution of benefits and burdens within the population of research interest or for any participant in the research. ** Participants Rights: ** The individual rights of all participants that must be respected by the researcher: ** Confidentiality: ** A participant’s right to privacy in terms of access, storage and disposal of information related to a research study in which they participated ** Voluntary Participation ** : Participation whereby participants agree to take part in an experiment free from pressure or fear of negative consequences ** Withdrawal Rights: ** A participant’s right to withdraw from a study or research at any time without experiencing any negative consequences ** Informed Consent: ** Where a participant gives their written consent to participate in a study after being fully informed of the true nature and purpose of the experiment (where appropriate), any foreseeable risks and their rights before an experiment begins. ** Deception: ** When information about the true purpose of a study is not given to participants before a study begins ** Debriefing: ** Informing participants of the true purpose of an experiment once it has ended ** Advantages and limitations of generalizing and drawing conclusions from non-human animals in research in terms of generalization and conclusions ** When animals are used as research participants, psychologists must treat them in an ethical and humane manner. Findings from animal studies have proved invaluable to psychologists in understanding human behaviour but caution must be exercised when generalising the findings of animal studies to human populations. ** Generalisation: ** A decision or judgement about whether the results obtained from a sample a representative of the relevant population This is particularly relevant as while there are lots of similarities between the physiology and behaviours of non-human animals and humans there are also significant differences. These differences can impact __external validity__ and __internal consistency__ in findings using non-human animal samples for generalising to human populations. ** External Validity: ** The extent to which a study is valid for a range of people or non-human participants and a range of times, not just a small subset of the population at that given instance. ** Internal Consistency: ** The degree to which a test measures the same variable to the same extent every time
 * Correcting mistaken attitudes or beliefs
 * Providing the opportunity to gain information about the study
 * Providing information about services to help with distress resulting from participation

<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">Resources: